Marla Nelson
The Transforming Nature of Haikai
Haikai is a form of popular linked verse, referring to both a poetic genre and an attitude of discourse toward language, literature, and tradition. Matsuo Bash?’s term “haikai spirit” (haii) implies the interaction of diverse languages and subcultures (specifically: the new popular culture of the Edo period and classical poetic tradition). “Haikai spirit” also signifies taking pleasure in re-contextualization. It refers to the de-familiarization, separating oneself from familiar habits and perspectives, and the following re-familiarization, re-establishing poetic topics in contemporary language and culture (Shirare 2002). Haikai is most often seen in hokku poetry, haibun prose, and haiga (haikai painting that incorporates an image with poem). The haikai attitude was developed in the early modern (Edo period) of Japan. The Shogunate had become established in Edo and a new commoner class in power (including samurai) desired to become more cultured like the aristocratic court, developing “Chinese” or “classical Japanese” tastes (Shirare 2002). Haikai demonstrates an interaction between the vernacular and classical Japanese languages. It developed the relationship during the Edo period between the new popular, urban commoner and samurai-based culture and classical tradition of the aristocrats.
In the mid-17th century new forms of printing developed leading to mass production with woodblocks as Japan’s economy was opened to trade with the West. The preliminary subjects were Buddhist and Confucian religious texts, then literary classics, and finally contemporary vernacular literature. Mass printing allowed for the popularization of haikai verse. Matsuo Bash? (1644-1649) is known as one of the greatest haiku writers. Bash? is accredited with developing a pure style of haiku, associating the Zen philosophy with the genre itself and converting it into a serious form of poetry in the 17th century. Other major contributors to the genre include Bus?n (1716-1783) and Issa (1763-1827).
Hokku, first named haikai-hokku and later abridged to haiku, is a seventeen-syllable linked verse form of poetry (Frederic 2002). The terms haikai and haiku are generally associated with all 3-line poems of 17 syllables. The poems are composed of lines with 5/7/5 syllable patterns and were originally written as the first part of a linked-verse waka or venga poem, created by two people as a literary game. The first poet would write 3 lines and the other responded with 2 lines (Japanese Haiku 1955).
Traditional haiku include specific components that develop images for the reader. A kigo, or seasonal word, indicates a specific season and its associations. Kireji (cutting word) divides the hokku into 2 parts causing a syntactic break. The break forces a metaphor or an internal connection between the dissonant. Subject matter can be either ‘single object’ focusing on 1 image or ‘combination’, juxtaposing 2 different elements. One part of the hokku will often be a seasonal topic while the other part features an image from contemporary popular culture. Either the popular image is used to create new life in a classical topic or the classical topic is used to give poetic shape to a contemporary image (Shirare 2002). Haiku poems are descriptive, without a clear statement or idea in which the poet attempts to capture a moment of insight into workings of the natural world. Subtle connotations require the reader to find their own pleasure in the language, reflecting on the profound significance of the words chosen in the composition.
Following the Japan’s defeat in WWII, in which Tokyo was almost completely flattened, there appeared to be a crisis in the confidence of Japanese poets and critics claimed traditional poetry to be dead (Buckley 2002). New forms of haiku developed, continuing the pre-war modernist tradition of breaking old vocabulary rules. New subjects included political figures and concepts with ideological overtones. Thousands of Americans lived in Japan during the Occupation, becoming involved in Japanese cultural forms. Americans brought their knowledge and experiences back to North America, and today numerous books exist on Japanese cultural forms, written by Americans and Europeans (Higginson 2001). Haiku is now popular within American elementary schools as a convenient, short poetic form to teach arcane rules of English syllabication.
During the late 20th century Japan has seen a rise in international marriages resulting in what Jane Singer (2000) calls “doubles”: a washing together of cultures to produce qualities that are neither Japanese nor Western alone, but something completely original. With the spread of haiku beyond Japan, the question of Japanese homogeneity arises. Foreign influences have been exerted on the country of Japan throughout history and the transformations of its culture. Many foreign poets have attempted to write haiku, composing in English and French. Major problems arise in attempting to translate and understand Japanese haiku. It is virtually impossible to translate haiku literally and maintain its form as a poem or keep it in the 17-syllable form. The kireji (divider) is marked by a dash in English translations. Additionally, haiku uses many connotations recognizable to literate Japanese but not those with of a second language. The language is used without connecting words, tenses, pronouns, or indicators of singular or plural, and it is highly polysyllabic, which creates a texture not found in the Anglo-Saxon languages (Japanese Haiku 1955).
Many consider the form of haiku in English is an artificial creation. In Japanese the verse flows down the paper with no break between the “lines” in the 5/7/5 form, moving from the upper right-hand corner to the lower left-hand corner of the page, vertically. In contrast, the English language requires the verse to be split in 3 lines in the middle of the page, losing the flow of original Japanese forms. Not only is the Japanese format more appealing to the reader, the poetry itself develops intense imagery as its art form. Even in the Japanese form of writing, both the Chinese ideographs and hiragana and katakana syllable forms contain beauty (Guest 1972). English poetry appeals more to the ear, creating distinct rhythms and rhymes.
Beyond the difficulties of translation, many people around the world read and write haiku on a daily basis. The famous Matsuo Bash? stated: “Like the endless changes of the seasons, all things must change. The same is true of haiku” (Shirare 2002). Bash? recognized the poetry of successive generations would change over time. Classic poetry will transcend the old and new, maintaining its profound meaning for the reader, while new forms will test the definition of haiku. The nature of haiku is to combine the traditional with the contemporary, just as Japanese culture must attempt to preserve its history while exchanging contemporary ideas with other sources.
Literature Cited
Buckley, Sandra, ed. Encyclopedia of Contemporary Japanese Culture. Routledge: London, 2002.
Frederic, Lonis, ed. Japan Encyclopedia. Beknap Press of Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, 2002.
Guest, Harry and Lynn, eds. Post War Japanese Poetry. Penguin Books: Middlesex, England, 1972.
Higginson, William J. “Less is more.” Writer 114.9 (2001): 20-23.
Japanese Haiku/ translated from the masters of the seventeen-syllable poetic form: Basho, Buson, Issa, Suiki, Sokan, Kikaku, Chiyo-ni, Joso, Yaha, Boncho, and others. Peter Pauper Press: Mount Vernon, NY, 1955.
Shirare, Harno, ed. Early Modern Japanese Literature: An anthology, 1600-1900. Columbia University Press: NY, 2002.
Singer, Jane. “Japan’s Singular ‘Doubles’.” Japan Quarterly 47.2 (2000) : 76-82.