{"id":2180,"date":"2026-08-05T11:50:20","date_gmt":"2026-08-05T16:50:20","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pages.stolaf.edu\/crepepaperbooks\/?page_id=2180"},"modified":"2026-08-07T15:37:37","modified_gmt":"2026-08-07T20:37:37","slug":"essay-variations-of-kobutori","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/pages.stolaf.edu\/crepepaperbooks\/essay-variations-of-kobutori\/","title":{"rendered":"Essay: Variations of “Kobutori”"},"content":{"rendered":"

[et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ _builder_version=”4.27.0″ _module_preset=”default” background_color=”#6b7a8e” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_row _builder_version=”4.27.0″ _module_preset=”default” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”4.27.0″ _module_preset=”default” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_heading title=”Variation in Storytelling and Translation of \u201cKobutori\u201d” _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” title_font=”|600|||||||” title_text_color=”#FFFFFF” title_font_size=”45px” background_enable_color=”off” custom_margin=”||10px||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_heading][et_pb_heading title=”by Tiana Pay ’29” _builder_version=”4.27.0″ _module_preset=”default” title_level=”h5″ title_text_color=”#FFFFFF” custom_padding=”6px|||||” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_heading][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_row column_structure=”1_2,1_2″ _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” custom_margin=”-30px||||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_column type=”1_2″ _builder_version=”4.27.0″ _module_preset=”default” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_heading title=”The Folktale %22Kobutori%22″ _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” title_level=”h5″ title_font=”|600|||||||” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_heading][\/et_pb_column][et_pb_column type=”1_2″ _builder_version=”4.27.0″ _module_preset=”default” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_button button_url=”https:\/\/pages.stolaf.edu\/crepepaperbooks\/essay-english-translators\/” button_text=”Read more on Hasegawa’s Translators” button_alignment=”right” _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” custom_button=”on” button_text_size=”15px” button_text_color=”#FFFFFF” button_bg_color=”#b8324f” button_border_width=”0px” button_border_radius=”0px” button_font=”|600||on|||||” custom_padding=”15px|30px|15px|30px|false|false” locked=”off” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_button][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][et_pb_row column_structure=”1_2,1_2″ _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” custom_margin=”-15px||||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_column type=”1_2″ _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” text_font_size=”16px” custom_margin=”||8px|||” global_colors_info=”{}”]<\/p>\n

Synopsis:<\/strong> \u201cKobutori\u201d (\u7624\u53d6\u308a, taking the lump), also known as \u201cKobutori j\u012bsan\u201d (\u3053\u3076\u53d6\u308a\u723a\u3055\u3093, lump-taken old man), is a well known folktale in Japan. Generally, the story tells of two old men, both with a lump (also translated as a tumor, wen, or cyst) on their faces. One old man goes to the mountain to cut wood, but is forced to take shelter due to heavy rain. Once the rain lets up, he witnesses supernatural beings throwing a boisterous gathering. These being are depicted as either tengu<\/em> <\/strong>(\u5929\u72d7)\u2014powerful deities or supernatural beings that have red faces, long noses, and wings to fly\u2014or oni<\/em> <\/strong>(\u9b3c)\u2014troublemaking supernatural creatures that have red, green, or blue skin, with horns, sharp and elongated teeth, claws, wild hair, and iron clubs. Spurred on by the lively atmosphere and his love of dancing, the old man comes out of hiding to dance for them. He dances so well that they take the lump off his face to encourage him to come back. Once he returns home, he tells the story of what happened, whereby the second old man attempts to do the same as the first to have his lump removed. However, he cannot dance as well as the first, and the creatures, offended by his lack of skill and wanting never to see him again, put the lump they removed from the first old man onto the second, leaving him with two.<\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][et_pb_column type=”1_2″ _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_image src=”https:\/\/pages.stolaf.edu\/crepepaperbooks\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1759\/2026\/08\/Japanese_Fairy_Book_-_Ozaki_-_281.png” title_text=”Japanese_Fairy_Book_-_Ozaki_-_281″ _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” background_color=”#FFFFFF” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” custom_margin=”-15px||||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”]<\/p>\n

Fujiyama Kakuz\u014d, [Kobutori], 1903. Illustration printed in Yei Theodora Ozaki, Japanese Fairy Book<\/em> (London; Bombay; Sydney New York: Constable and Company Limited; E. P. Dutton and Company, 1903), 281.<\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][et_pb_row _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” custom_margin=”-49px||||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”4.27.0″ _module_preset=”default” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_divider color=”#000000″ divider_position=”center” divider_weight=”2px” _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_divider][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” text_font_size=”16px” custom_margin=”-10px||||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”]<\/p>\n

Reverend James Curtis Hepburn used \u201cKobutori\u201d as the basis forThe Old Man and the Devils<\/em>, his contribution to Hasegawa Takejir\u014d\u2019s (\u9577\u8c37\u5ddd\u6b66\u6b21\u90ce, 1853-1938) Japanese fairy tale series. Hepburn first came to Japan in 1859 as one of the first medical Presbyterian missionaries. While in Japan, he learned Japanese through reading novels and stories in colloquial Japanese. This assisted his curation of the first Japanese-English dictionary, in addition to translating the Bible. He also developed a standardized system for romanizing Japanese called the Hepburn system that is still used today. He was also one of the first to translate \u201cKobutori\u201d into English, and through his collaboration with Hasegawa, reached wide audiences with it.<\/p>\n

Hepburn references the Ujish\u016bi monogatari<\/em> (\u5b87\u6cbb\u62fe\u907a\u7269\u8a9e) for his translation, but many versions of the story exist within Japan. Through translations such as Hepburn\u2019s, these stories have also spread outside of Japan and captured the interest of the Western world.<\/p>\n

This essay proceeds in two parts to analyze these varying approaches to telling the story of \u201cKobutori.\u201d I first address various renditions inside Japan. Then, I explore the various ways these stories have been translated into English in an investigation of the evolving significance of folktales.<\/strong><\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][et_pb_row _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” background_enable_color=”off” min_height=”235.4px” custom_margin=”0px|auto||auto|false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”4.27.0″ _module_preset=”default” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_heading title=”Variants of \u201cKobutori\u201d in Japan” _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” title_level=”h5″ title_font=”|600|||||||” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_heading][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” text_font_size=”16px” global_colors_info=”{}”]<\/p>\n

\u201cKobutori\u201d was first recorded in writing in the thirteenth century in the Ujish\u016bi monogatari<\/em>. However, there are many regional variations and contemporary literary adaptations that offer interesting insights into the malleability of the narrative and contemporary role of folktales.<\/p>\n

I examine six different renditions of the folktale found in Japan: one found in the classical text of the Ujish\u016bi monogatari<\/em><\/strong>, two recorded by folklorists Yanagita Kunio<\/strong> (\u67f3\u7530\u56fd\u7537, 1875-1962) and Seki Keigo<\/strong> (\u95a2\u656c\u543e, 1899-1990), and three written by professional writers\u2014Iwaya Sazanami<\/strong> (\u5dcc\u8c37\u5c0f\u6ce2, 1870-1933), Dazai Osamu<\/strong> (\u592a\u5bb0\u6cbb, 1909-1948), and Brittany Partin<\/strong> (dates unknown).<\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” background_color=”gcid-545c17f1-4e53-478d-9e2b-03daafc524a2″ custom_margin=”-30px||||false|false” global_colors_info=”{%22gcid-545c17f1-4e53-478d-9e2b-03daafc524a2%22:%91%22background_color%22%93}”][et_pb_row _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” background_color=”RGBA(255,255,255,0)” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” text_font_size=”16px” background_color=”#FFFFFF” global_colors_info=”{}”]<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
Title<\/strong><\/td>\nAuthor<\/strong><\/td>\nPublication Date<\/strong><\/td>\nLocation<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
Oni ni kobu torareruru koto<\/em> (\u9b3c\u306b\u7624\u53d6\u3089\u308c\u308b\u308b\u4e8b)<\/td>\nUnknown<\/td>\nc. 1212-1221<\/td>\nUjitawara, Kyoto (\u4eac\u90fd\u5e9c\u5b87\u6cbb\u7530\u539f\u753a)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Kobutori<\/em> (\u7624\u53d6\u308a)<\/td>\nIwaya Sazanami (\u5dcc\u8c37\u5c0f\u6ce2)<\/td>\n1895<\/td>\nMinato, Tokyo (\u6771\u4eac\u90fd\u6e2f\u533a)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Kobutori<\/em> (\u7624\u53d6\u308a)<\/td>\nDazai Osamu (\u592a\u5bb0\u6cbb)<\/td>\n1945<\/td>\nMitaka, Tokyo (\u6771\u4eac\u90fd\u4e09\u9df9\u5e02)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Kobutori j\u012bsan<\/em> (\u7624\u53d6\u723a)<\/td>\nYanagita Kunio (\u67f3\u7530\u56fd\u7537)<\/td>\n1948<\/td>\nMogami, Yamagata (\u5c71\u5f62\u770c\u6700\u4e0a\u753a)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Kobutatsu<\/em> (\u7624\u305f\u3064)<\/td>\nSeki Keigo (\u95a2\u656c\u543e)<\/td>\n1956-1957<\/td>\nTsuchibuchi, Iwate (\u5ca9\u624b\u770c\u9060\u91ce\u5e02)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
The Dancing Old Man with a Lump on His Cheek<\/td>\nBrittany Partin<\/td>\n2013<\/td>\nMatsue, Shimane (\u5cf6\u6839\u770c\u677e\u6c5f\u5e02)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” background_color=”RGBA(255,255,255,0)” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_row _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” custom_margin=”-46px||||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” text_font_size=”16px” global_colors_info=”{}”]<\/p>\n

Being the oldest recorded version of the tale, the Ujish\u016bi monogatari <\/em>offers a foundation upon which to compare other renditions of the story. Yanagita and Seki\u2019s versions offer insight into regional variations, as well as Japan\u2019s newfound academic interest in the value of folktales through the field of folklore studies. Finally, writers such as Iwaya, Dazai, and Partin demonstrate how contemporary considerations and circumstances impact their retellings, highlighting the versatility and adaptability of folktales for modern audiences.<\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section][et_pb_section fb_built=”1″ _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” custom_margin=”-114px||||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_row _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_heading title=”Regional Rariants” _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” title_level=”h6″ title_font=”|600|||||||” custom_margin=”10px||||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_heading][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][et_pb_row column_structure=”2_5,3_5″ _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” custom_margin=”-32px||||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_column type=”2_5″ _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” text_font_size=”16px” global_colors_info=”{}”]<\/p>\n

These renditions of the folktale originated from four different regions in Japan: Ch\u016bkoku<\/em> (\u4e2d\u56fd), Kansai<\/em> (\u95a2\u897f), Kant\u014d<\/em> (\u95a2\u6771) and T\u014dhoku<\/em> (\u6771\u5317). Versions of “Kobutori” written by professional writers generally come from Tokyo (part of the Kant\u014d<\/em>\u00a0<\/em>region), while the versions the folklorists collected are from two prefectures in the T\u014dhoku<\/em> region. I included a variation of the folktale recorded by a foreigner to Japan as well. Despite her work being a translation, and therefore outside of its original Japanese context, it still captures the essence of the region\u2019s retelling of the folktale. While there are not many significant disparities resulting from regional differences in these selected works, there are some details worth noting.<\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][et_pb_column type=”3_5″ _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_image src=”https:\/\/pages.stolaf.edu\/crepepaperbooks\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1759\/2026\/08\/Screenshot-2026-07-24-134232.jpg” title_text=”Screenshot 2026-07-24 134232″ _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” custom_margin=”-93px||||false|false” custom_margin_tablet=”0px||||false|false” custom_margin_phone=”0px||||false|false” custom_margin_last_edited=”on|phone” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_image][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][et_pb_row _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” custom_margin=”-38px||||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” text_font_size=”16px” global_colors_info=”{}”]<\/p>\n

First, the retelling Seki recorded in Iwate prefecture and Partin recorded in Shimane prefecture opt to include tengu<\/em> instead of oni<\/em>. This is a relatively common disparity that manifests among variants of the folktale.<\/p>\n

There are few behavioral differences between the two creatures in the tale, making this detail easily interchangeable. However, the versions that use tengu<\/em> usually include less of them than there are oni<\/em> in versions where oni<\/em> are used. For instance, in Seki\u2019s rendition, there are only five or six tengu<\/em>, and in Partin\u2019s, there are only three. Conversely, there is usually a large group of oni<\/em>, with some retellings, such as that found in the Ujish\u016bi monogatari<\/em>, describing there to be around a hundred of them. Another difference that can manifest with the use of tengu<\/em> instead of oni<\/em> is the setting of the tale. In Seki\u2019s variant, the tale is set in a shrine that the two old men go to to pray for their wens to be gone. Interestingly, in this version the old men face the supernatural creatures together, whereas typically, they encounter them in succession. One outlier to this comparison between oni<\/em> and tengu<\/em> is Yanagita\u2019s variation of the tale. Instead of oni<\/em> or tengu<\/em>, the creatures are bakemono<\/em> (\u5316\u7269), a general term encompassing most monsters in Japanese folklore.<\/p>\n

We also see regional differences in the reason the second old man has the lump placed on his face. In Partin\u2019s retelling, the lump is gifted to the second old man as a reward for dancing so well, despite him seeking out the tengu<\/em> to remove it for him. This contrasts with most variations\u2014typically, the creatures return the lump to him so they never have to see his awful dancing again, or, as in Yanagita\u2019s version, as retribution for being too afraid to dance at all. In a similar vein, in Seki\u2019s variantion, the lump is removed as a gift to the first old man for dancing so well, rather than as a promise for his return, and then placed on the second as a punishment for dancing so poorly. Seki\u2019s version displays another particularly intriguing difference: the lumps are not located on the old men\u2019s cheeks, but rather on their forehead and nose. This detail is especially uncommon, as most renditions agree that the first old man has a lump on his right cheek, while the second old man has a lump on his left cheek.<\/p>\n

Many more interesting findings can be made by comparing regional variations of this folktale\u2014indeed, other regional versions display even greater disparities than found in those I selected. However, I would like to shift to focus on the differences in the retelling of the folktale by professional writers. While most regional versions are oral traditions and circulate among a limited community, professional writers seek to capture and impact a national audience.<\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][et_pb_row _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_heading title=”Contemporary Audience Adaptations” _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” title_level=”h6″ title_font=”|600|||||||” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_heading][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” text_font_size=”16px” global_colors_info=”{}”]<\/p>\n

Iwaya Sazanami wrote his popular adaptation of \u201cKobutori\u201d in 1895. It gained significant international renown at the time, and was frequently translated into English. Fifty years later in 1945, Dazai Osamu wrote his own retelling of the tale. Both display significant alterations that highlight the writers\u2019 beliefs and Japan\u2019s contemporary circumstances.<\/p>\n

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Iwaya Sazanami is widely regarded as Japan\u2019s father of children\u2019s literature. Much of his writing for children was influenced by Western fairy tales; he studied German and valued Western fairy tales\u2019 structures, morals, and ability to influence youth.1<\/a><\/sup>Aafke van Ewijk, \u201cPremodern Warriors as Spirited Young Citizens: Iwaya Sazanami and the Semiosphere of Meiji Youth Literature,\u201d Japan Forum<\/em> 35, no. 3 (2023): 354-355, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/09555803.2021.2008471.<\/span> As a Meiji era writer, his works reflect the nationalistic and imperialistic ideologies that gained precedence in Japan as it tried to redefine itself as a modern nation-state. However, he emphasizes adventurous, imaginative, and spirited dispositions over moral and nationalistic lessons in his writing. He saw these characteristics as necessary for Japanese youth to mature into men like those in the West and allow Japan to achieve the same level of international success.2<\/a><\/sup>van Ewijk, 355.<\/span><\/p>\n

Iwaya\u2019s retelling of \u201cKobutori\u201d follows the same plotline as the Ujish\u016bi monogatari<\/em>, but he makes major alterations to fit it into his ideal model of a children\u2019s story. He emphasizes that the \u201cgood\u201d old man was rewarded while the \u201cwicked and disagreeable\u201d one was punished, demonstrating didactic intent. Moreover, he highlights the adventurousness and courageousness of the old men who were willing to dance in front of oni<\/em> despite the danger. Typically, the second old man is depicted to be so frightened that he cannot dance well, but Iwaya instead depicts him as having the same bravery as the first old man, only lacking the dancing skills to have his lump removed. This highlights Iwaya\u2019s view that appropriating folktales to offer \u201cindirect teachings\u201d is a valuable way to impart Meiji values on children and guide the development of their characters.3<\/a><\/sup>van Ewijk, 355-356.<\/span> This also demonstrates the influence of Western fairy tale traditions and Meiji ideals on his writing. Thus, his retelling is longer, more detailed, and more accessible to children readers than other renditions of the tale.<\/p>\n

[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][et_pb_column type=”2_5″ _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_image src=”https:\/\/pages.stolaf.edu\/crepepaperbooks\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1759\/2026\/08\/\u5dd6\u8c37_\u5c0f\u6ce2.jpg” title_text=”\u5dd6\u8c37_\u5c0f\u6ce2” _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.27.7″ _module_preset=”default” custom_margin=”-20px||||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”]<\/p>\n

Sazanami Iwaya, 1928-1930. Portaits of Modern Japanese Historical Figues, National Diet Library, Japan.<\/p>\n

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Yoshiaki Watanabe, Osamu Dazai in Mitaka, Tokyo<\/em>, 1944. Wikimedia Commons.<\/p>\n

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Dazai Osamu is well known for his works published in post-war Japan, which capture the despair felt by many Japanese after the war.4<\/a><\/sup>Reiko Nemoto, \u201cResearch Starters | Osamu Dazai: Japanese novelist and short-story writer,\u201d EBSCO, accessed July 29, 2026, https:\/\/www.ebsco.com\/research-starters\/history\/osamu-dazai.<\/span> His writing is characterized by illustrations of suffering and the less appealing features of human nature as beautiful, insertions of characters reminiscent of himself and his experiences, and use of self-deprecating humor.5<\/a><\/sup>Nemoto.<\/span> All of these qualities can be found in his retelling of \u201cKobutori.\u201d First, he does not write for a child audience. Although the narrator in the story is a father reading the tale to his child, the actual writing itself is not simple and easy to understand. Moreover, Dazai vastly alters the plot\u2014the narrator tells his own version of the tale, being about an old man with a drinking problem, while in a shelter during an air raid.<\/p>\n

In the tale, the old man, while still having his lump removed on the basis of his good dancing skills, did not want to have it removed. In fact, he thought of it fondly as it warded off his loneliness. While the Ujish\u016bi monogatari<\/em> similarly describes the old man asking for anything but his lump to be taken, he does not act remorseful after the event, while in Dazai\u2019s version, the old man is depicted to have conflicting thoughts about it. Furthermore, the second old man was successful and respectable, not bad, disliking his lump for being a hindrance to him and his worth. He sought out the oni<\/em> to get his lump removed, but scared them off with his rather unique dancing. Through this, Dazai emphasizes that despite the second old man not necessarily doing anything wrong, he was punished, showcasing the unfairness of reality in comparison to what stories tell us to expect should happen. He ends the tale with, \u201cTry drawing a moral from this story and you\u2019re in real trouble. So why did I bother telling the tale? If the anxious reader presses me on this question, I\u2019d have to answer that there\u2019s always something both tragic and comical in people\u2019s very nature. It\u2019s a problem at the very core of our lives, and that\u2019s really all I can say,\u201d6<\/a><\/sup>Osamu Dazai, Crackling Mountain and Other Stories<\/em>, trans. James O\u2019Brien, with Internet Archive (Rutland, Vt.\u202f: C.E. Tuttle Co., 1989), http:\/\/archive.org\/details\/cracklingmountai0000daza.<\/span> questioning conventional stories\u2019 inconsistency with real life.<\/p>\n

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Moreover, Dazai emphasizes the old men\u2019s families, not just their experiences with their lumps, placing the tale closer to the readers in relatability and emotional connection. There are many asides throughout the tale as well\u2014the narrator chides himself for not being more educated in folktales or not knowing what a true oni<\/em> looks like for lack of personal encounters with them\u2014which highlight Dazai\u2019s distinctive storytelling style that employs a highly active and involved narrator. Overall, Dazai\u2019s retelling emphasizes everything that he found salient at the time, such as the ongoing World War II, unpolished depictions of human experiences, and the reality of life not reflecting one\u2019s virtue. Out of all of the retellings I analyzed, Dazai\u2019s stands out for its literary genius and expression, completely flouting expectations of the original folktale, as well as typical writing conventions in general.<\/p>\n

Through investigating the retellings of \u201cKobutori\u201d in Japan, the extent of variation in Japan\u2019s folklore tradition becomes apparent. Each rendition of the tale\u2014adapted to fit regional oral traditions, to influence children to exemplify nationalistic values, or to question human nature in a time of suffering and uncertainty\u2014reflects the identity of the storyteller and the influence of the state of contemporary Japan. These numerous adjustments and appropriations of folktales to suit various needs is testimony to the continued significance of the folktale tradition in Japanese society.<\/p>\n

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\u201cKobutori\u201d also has many English translations. These, too, reflect the individual tastes and motivations of the translator, and demonstrate significant variation through time.<\/p>\n

I examine eight different translations of the folktale: three translations of the Ujish\u016bi monogatari<\/em>\u2019s rendition\u2014by John Carey Hall<\/strong> (1864-1926), James Curtis Hepburn<\/strong> (1815-1911), and Royall Tyler<\/strong> (1936-)\u2014and five translations of later renditions of the tale\u2014Yei Theodora Ozaki\u2019s<\/strong> (1870-1932) translation of Iwaya, James O\u2019Brien\u2019s<\/strong> (dates unknown) translation of Dazai, Robert J. Adams\u2019<\/strong> (dates unknown) translation of Seki, Fanny Hagin Mayer\u2019s<\/strong> (1899-1990) translation of Yanagita, and Brittany Partin\u2019s<\/strong> written translation of oral tradition.<\/p>\n

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Japanese Title<\/strong><\/td>\nAuthor<\/strong><\/td>\nPublication Date<\/strong><\/td>\nEnglish Title<\/strong><\/td>\nTranslator<\/strong><\/td>\nTranslation Date<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Oni ni kobu torareruru koto<\/em> (\u9b3c\u306b\u7624\u53d6\u3089\u308c\u308b\u308b\u4e8b)<\/td>\nUnknown<\/td>\nc. 1212-1221<\/td>\nThe Story of the Man with the Wen<\/td>\nJohn Carey Hall<\/td>\n1875<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Oni ni kobu torareruru koto<\/em> (\u9b3c\u306b\u7624\u53d6\u3089\u308c\u308b\u308b\u4e8b)<\/td>\nUnknown<\/td>\nc. 1212-1221<\/td>\nThe Old Man and the Devils<\/td>\nJames Curtis Hepburn<\/td>\n1886<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Oni ni kobu torareruru koto<\/em> (\u9b3c\u306b\u7624\u53d6\u3089\u308c\u308b\u308b\u4e8b)<\/td>\nUnknown<\/td>\nc. 1212-1221<\/td>\nLump Off, Lump On<\/td>\nRoyall Tyler<\/td>\n1987<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Kobutori<\/em> (\u7624\u53d6\u308a)<\/td>\nIwaya Sazanami (\u5dcc\u8c37\u5c0f\u6ce2)<\/td>\n1895<\/td>\nHow an Old Man Lost His Wen<\/td>\nYei Theodora Ozaki<\/td>\n1903<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Kobutori<\/em> (\u7624\u53d6\u308a)<\/td>\nDazai Osamu (\u592a\u5bb0\u6cbb)<\/td>\n1945<\/td>\nTaking the Wen Away<\/td>\nJames O’Brien<\/td>\n1989<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Kobutori j\u012bsan<\/em> (\u7624\u53d6\u723a)<\/td>\nYanagita Kunio (\u67f3\u7530\u56fd\u7537)<\/td>\n1948<\/td>\nThe Old Man Who Got a Tumor<\/td>\nFanny Hagin Mayer<\/td>\n1985<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Kobutatsu<\/em> (\u7624\u305f\u3064)<\/td>\nSeki Keigo (\u95a2\u656c\u543e)<\/td>\n1956-1957<\/td>\nThe Old Men Who Had Wens<\/td>\nRobert J. Adams<\/td>\n1963<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
n\/a<\/td>\nn\/a<\/td>\nn\/a<\/td>\nThe Dancing Old Man with a Lump on His Cheek<\/td>\nBrittany Partin<\/td>\n2013<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

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Hall, Hepburn, and Tyler all translated the same text, but for different audiences and at different points in time. Hall and Hepburn\u2019s translations are one of the earliest English versions of the tale, while Tyler offers a more contemporary translation. This comparison shines light onto what factors induce variability in translation, and how individual translators approach a translation.<\/p>\n

The five translations based on later Japanese adaptations of \u201cKobutori\u201d also provide more perspective on the ever-evolving nature of this folktale. Ozaki\u2019s translation of Iwaya\u2019s work offers an alternate lens through which to view \u201cKobutori\u201d and its role in children\u2019s literature with her similar, but differing, audience. O\u2019Brien\u2019s emphasis on literature and its comparative value enhance the quality and reliability of his translation, which in turn highlights the significance of Dazai\u2019s work for contemplation in the West. Adams\u2019 strong devotion to maintaining the original Japanese feel of the text marked his translation as noteworthy, while Mayer offers her distinguished folklorist perspective to her translation of Yanagita\u2019s work. Finally, Partin translates freely from oral tradition, offering another angle to explore translations of folktales from.<\/p>\n

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First, I\u2019ll examine the three translations of \u201cKobutori\u201d as found in the Ujish\u016bi monogatari<\/em>, translated in 1875, 1886, and 1987. They were translated\u2014respectively\u2014by John Carey Hall, a consular and legal worker in Japan,7<\/a><\/sup>J. E. Hoare, \u201cJohn Carey Hall (1864\u20131926): A Career in Japan and the Japan Consular Service,\u201d in Britain & Japan Biographical Portraits<\/em> Vol X, ed. Hugh Cortazzi, Britain & Japan: Biographical Portraits (Amsterdam University Press, 2016), https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/9781898823469.023.<\/span> James Curtis Hepburn, a medical missionary, and Royall Tyler, a professor of Japanese language and literature at the University of Oslo with a Ph.D. in Japanese literature.<\/p>\n

Hall translates the text almost exactly as written in the Ujish\u016bi monogatari<\/em>, even writing \u201csak\u00e9<\/em>\u201d instead of translating it to \u201cwine\u201d like both Tyler and Hepburn do. The only notable discrepancies arise from the influence Victorian England\u2019s fairy tale tradition had on his translation: he translates \u201coni<\/em>\u201d to \u201celves,\u201d and ends with \u201cMoral. People ought not to feel envious,\u201d8<\/a><\/sup>C. W. Goodwin, \u201cOn Some Japanese Legends,\u201d Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan<\/em>, vol. 3, part 2, (Vaduz: Kraus Reprint Limited 1875), 54-57, https:\/\/babel.hathitrust.org\/cgi\/pt?id=uc1.31175002426693&seq=684<\/span> which is not included in the original text. He additionally excludes the comparison of the old man\u2019s lump to a mandarin orange, though it is not clear why. Hall\u2019s literal translation was a result of his intended audience\u2014instead of translating the tale for the general public to enjoy, like Hepburn and Tyler, he instead translated it for his friend Charles Wycliffe Goodwin\u2019s essay for the Asiatic Society of Japan. In other words, his translation is intended to assist with scholarly pursuits rather than entertain children or a general audience, accounting for the extent to which he translates the text literally.<\/p>\n

That being said, Tyler\u2019s translation is also relatively faithful. The title he creates for the tale, \u201cLump On, Lump Off,\u201d is the first indication of the changes he does make, however. Besides Hepburn, who chooses to uniquely title his work The Old Man and the Devils<\/em>, this creativity with the title is not seen in the other translations. This alteration reflects Tyler\u2019s emphasis on creating a tale that is understandable and enjoyable not just to Western readers, but to a modern audience. To accomplish this, he excludes some of the details included in the original text that he sees as tedious and deductive to the retelling. He leaves out the beginning of the original tale, which starts \u201cThis also happened a long time ago,\u201d providing the tale with a more active, forward moving pacing, and translates \u201csake<\/em>\u201d to \u201cwine\u201d and \u201coni<\/em>\u201d to \u201cmonster\u201d to appeal to Western audiences. Outside of this, he does not make any sizable addition or alterations that distract from the original text, only enhancing its digestibility and accessibility to readers. This intention is also made clear through the introduction to his collection of translated Japanese tales, where he explains Japanese culture, customs, and imagery. He thus saw his translation as educational, allowing the reader to experience Japanese culture and become more acquainted with it.<\/p>\n

When compared to these two examples, Hepburn\u2019s translation published by Hasegawa is the least faithful to the original text. While he also simplifies the text to make it more straightforward and accessible, he takes it a step further than Tyler does, cutting more details and misrepresenting parts of the text. For example, his translation of \u201coni<\/em>\u2019 to \u201cdevil\u201d and framing them to be adverse to light adapts the story to a Western, Christian perspective in a way that neither Hall nor Tyler attempt. He additionally adds dialogue where there originally is none, or excludes dialogue and major details of the tale, such as the oni<\/em> chief being entertained by his underlings. He also misrepresents the lump, as instead of depicting the conclusion that the lump is lucky to be based on the oni<\/em>\u2019s assumptions, his writing presents this to be a fact of Japanese culture. Furthermore, he depicts the old man as not minding giving away his lump, when the original text maintains that he specifically asked for them to take anything but<\/em> his lump. Overall, as Hepburn was writing for a general and not academic audience, he, like Hall, adapts the tale to better fit their expectations. However, unlike Hall, he takes a lot more liberty in his translation to subtly adapt it to his worldview and suit his purposes of proselytizing.<\/p>\n

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Beyond translations of the Ujish\u016bi monogatari<\/em>\u2019s \u201cKobutori,\u201d there are also translations of Yanagita and Seki\u2019s folktale collections, as well as Iwaya and Dazai\u2019s literary adaptations of the tale.<\/p>\n

Yei Theodora Ozaki, a writer of Japanese and English heritage, was one of the first to translate Iwaya\u2019s retelling of the tale to English, completing her translation in 1903. She does not translate the work literally, and notes in her preface, \u201cIn telling these stories in English I have followed my fancy in adding such touches of local colour or description as they seemed to need or as pleased me, and in one or two instances I have gathered in an incident from another version.\u201d9<\/a><\/sup>Yei Theodora Ozaki, The Japanese Fairy Book<\/em>, [1st edition]. (C. E. Tuttle Co., 1970), xi-xii.<\/span> Her lax approach to translation stems from her view of herself as a storyteller in her own right writing for a Western, child audience, similar to Lafcadio Hearn and his translations of Japanese folktales. This intended Western audience explains her translation of \u201coni<\/em>\u201d to \u201cdemon\u201d and \u201csake<\/em>\u201d to \u201cwine.\u201d Furthermore, the influence Victorian fairy tales had on her writing is easily discernible in its tone, and especially through her dialogue. Overall, her translation of Iwaya\u2019s work resembles Hasegawa\u2019s translators\u2019 translations, especially those of Kate James, Basil Hall Chamberlain, and Lafcadio Hearn.10<\/a><\/sup>Tiana Pay, \u201cTranslation in Japanese Fairy Tale Series: Hasegawa’s English Translators,\u201d Hasegawa’s Whimsical World<\/em>, 2026, https:\/\/pages.stolaf.edu\/crepepaperbooks\/essay-translation\/<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n

Robert J. Adams translated Seki\u2019s collection of folktales in 1963. As his translation is intended for academic purposes, namely to expand the study of Japanese folktales to Western scholars, his translation is very literal and faithful to the original. As such, he keeps the original Japanese when an English equivalent does not exist. He thus keeps the terms \u201ctengu<\/em>\u201d and \u201cshaku<\/em>\u201d followed by explanations of what these are (shaku<\/em> being a Japanese measurement similar to a foot). Interestingly, he describes tengu<\/em> to be “mischievous ogres.\u201d11<\/a><\/sup>Keigo Seki, Folktales of Japan<\/em>, trans. Robert J. Adams, Folktales of the World (University of Chicago Press, 1963), 127.<\/span> Oni<\/em> is also commonly translated to \u201cogre,\u201d despite these two Japanese creatures being vastly different, and the potential for them to be translated the same way in English demonstrates the difficulty in accurately translating Japanese folktales into English. Adams keeps many onomatopoeic elements in Japanese, such as the songs the tengu<\/em> and old men sing, adding an explanation of the nature of the onomatopoeic element for the latter (being imitation of instruments). This is not seen in other translations despite the high frequency of onomatopoeic language in Japanese. Overall, Adams’ translation is very literal, managing to maintain the essence of the original text while also writing the tale in a compelling way.<\/p>\n

Fanny Hagin Mayer, an American translator, educator, and Japanese folklorist, translated Yanagita\u2019s collection of folktales in 1985. Her translation, also meant to serve as a reference for students of folklore studies, is literally and faithfully translated from Yanagita\u2019s text. However, she translates \u201cbakemono<\/em>\u201d to \u201cghosts,\u201d which while not necessarily incorrect, is not, in this context, the most accurate translation. Bakemono<\/em> is a general term, so the translation to \u201cmonster\u201d may be better suited here. Otherwise, she maintains the original text\u2019s very direct and concise style, only adding quotations to a section of the text that could be interpreted as being directly said by the bakemono<\/em>, though is not indicated as such in the original. Overall, Mayer\u2019s translation may be the most literal and faithful out of all the selected translations.<\/p>\n

James O\u2019Brien, a professor of Japanese literature at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, translated Dazai\u2019s adaptation of \u201cKobutori\u201d in 1989. His translation, while relatively faithful to the original in style, does display changes intended to improve the readability for English readers. O\u2019Brien preserves Dazai\u2019s exclusion of quotations around what would typically be considered a direct quote in English to maintain his style, but includes his own distinctive storytelling tone that is more sure and eloquent than Dazai\u2019s long-winded and musing narrator. Nevertheless, O\u2019Brien\u2019s translation stands out from the others for the fact that he does not attempt to write for a children’s audience or an academic one. Rather, he writes for the general populace, carefully translating the work to highlight its genius while minimizing the obvious signs of translation. As such, his translation uses more complex vocabulary and phrasing than seen in the other faithful translations. This may also be due to Dazai\u2019s work being the most literarily advanced as compared to the other versions of \u201cKobutori,\u201d naturally applying itself to a more sophisticated translation. O\u2019Brien additionally uses footnotes to explain the many cultural references Dazai makes, streamlining his translation. However, while he keeps \u201csake<\/em>\u201d as is, he translates \u201coni<\/em>\u201d to \u201cdemon,\u201d accepting it as a culturally similar enough equivalent. Overall, O’Brien’s translation is the most similar to what is typically thought of as a translation\u2014a literary work in its own right that allows the average reader to enjoy foreign works without knowledge of source language or culture.<\/p>\n

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That is to say that is just how I feel it was like, but it’s not like I have a reference or anything. Originally, this Kobutori tale, appears to have come from the Ujish\u016bi monogatari<\/em>, but in this air-raid shelter, it’s impossible to examine this original text or that one. Not limited to this Kobutori story, even in the story of Urashima-san<\/em> which I plan to try telling next, first of all that fact was fastidiously recorded in the <\/span>Nihon shoki<\/span><\/i>, and also in the <\/span>Many\u014d<\/span><\/i> there is a <\/span>ch\u014dka<\/span><\/i> about Urashima, besides that, even turning to such things as the <\/span>Tango f\u016bdoki<\/span><\/i> or the <\/span>Honch\u014d shinsenden<\/span><\/i>, something similar seems to be passed down in them, and again, just in recent times there is \u014cgai\u2019s play, and didn\u2019t Sh\u014dy\u014d also make this story into a music dance drama, in any case, from noh plays, <\/span>kabuki<\/span><\/i>, all the way to <\/span>geisha<\/em>\u2019s parlor dance, this Urashima-<\/span>san<\/span><\/i>\u2019s appearance is innumerable.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

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\u3068\u3044\u3075\u3084\u3046\u306a\u6c17\u304c\u3059\u308b\u3060\u3051\u306e\u4e8b\u3067\u3001\u5225\u306b\u5178\u62e0\u304c\u3042\u308b\u308f\u3051\u3067\u306f\u306a\u3044\u3002\u3082\u3068\u3082\u3068\u3001\u3053\u306e\u7624\u53d6\u308a\u306e\u8a71\u306f\u3001\u5b87\u6cbb\u62fe\u907a\u7269\u8a9e\u304b\u3089\u767a\u3057\u3066\u3090\u308b\u3082\u306e\u3089\u3057\u3044\u304c\u3001\u9632\u7a7a\u58d5\u306e\u4e2d\u3067\u3001\u3042\u308c\u3053\u308c\u539f\u5178\u3092\u8a6e\u8b70\u3059\u308b\u4e8b\u306f\u4e0d\u53ef\u80fd\u3067\u3042\u308b\u3002\u3053\u306e\u7624\u53d6\u308a\u306e\u8a71\u306b\u9650\u3089\u305a\u3001\u6b21\u306b\u5c55\u958b\u3057\u3066\u898b\u3088\u3046\u3068\u601d\u3075\u6d66\u5cf6\u3055\u3093\u306e\u8a71\u3067\u3082\u3001\u307e\u3065\u65e5\u672c\u66f8\u7d00\u306b\u305d\u306e\u4e8b\u5b9f\u304c\u3061\u3084\u3093\u3068\u8a18\u8f09\u305b\u3089\u308c\u3066\u3090\u308b\u3057\u3001\u307e\u305f\u4e07\u8449\u306b\u3082\u6d66\u5cf6\u3092\u8a60\u3058\u305f\u9577\u6b4c\u304c\u3042\u308a\u3001\u305d\u306e\u307b\u304b\u3001\u4e39\u5f8c\u98a8\u571f\u8a18\u3084\u3089\u672c\u671d\u795e\u4ed9\u4f1d\u306a\u3069\u3068\u3044\u3075\u3082\u306e\u306b\u4f9d\u3064\u3066\u3082\u3001\u305d\u308c\u3089\u3057\u3044\u3082\u306e\u304c\u4f1d\u3078\u3089\u308c\u3066\u3090\u308b\u3084\u3046\u3060\u3057\u3001\u307e\u305f\u3001\u3064\u3044\u6700\u8fd1\u306b\u65bc\u3044\u3066\u306f\u9d0e\u5916\u306e\u622f\u66f2\u304c\u3042\u308b\u3057\u3001\u900d\u9065\u306a\u3069\u3082\u3053\u306e\u7269\u8a9e\u3092\u821e\u66f2\u306b\u3057\u305f\u4e8b\u306f\u7121\u304b\u3064\u305f\u304b\u3057\u3089\u3001\u3068\u306b\u304b\u304f\u3001\u80fd\u697d\u3001\u6b4c\u821e\u4f0e\u3001\u82b8\u8005\u306e\u624b\u8e0a\u308a\u306b\u5230\u308b\u307e\u3067\u3001\u3053\u306e\u6d66\u5cf6\u3055\u3093\u306e\u767b\u5834\u306f\u304a\u3073\u305f\u3060\u3057\u3044\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

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That’s how I remember it, but there’s no way to check here in this air-raid shelter. Worse yet, I can’t confirm whether this story was first told in The Tales of Uji<\/em> (2), as seems to be the case. I\u2019m a bit hazy about where the other stories got started, too\u2014Urashima, for instance, which I plan to tell next. I am aware that the true story of Urashima is duly recorded in the <\/span>Chronicle of<\/span><\/i> <\/span>Japan (3)<\/span>\u00a0and that there\u2019s even a ballad on him in <\/span>The Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves<\/span><\/i> (4)<\/span>.\u00a0And let\u2019s see, now\u2014besides that, there\u2019s a similar tale in the <\/span>Tango Gazetteer <\/span><\/i>(5)<\/span>\u00a0and one in the <\/span>Biographies of the Taoist Immortals <\/span><\/i>(6)<\/span> as well. Coming down to recent times, didn\u2019t \u014cgai (7) write a play about Urashima? And didn\u2019t Sh\u014dy\u014d (8) set the story to music for dancing? In any event, Urashima puts in countless appearances on the stage, whether in Noh, Kabuki, or geisha dancing.<\/span><\/p>\n

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2.\u00a0The Tales of Uji\u00a0<\/em>is an anonymous collection of 197 tales, most likely compiled between 1180 and 1220. The range of works is from simple folktales to stories of religion and the supernatural.<\/span><\/p>\n

3. The Chronicles of Japan<\/em> or the Nihon Shoki<\/em>, to give the work its well-known Japanese title, is the first officially sponsored account of the mythic origins and early history of Japan. The chronicle runs from the Age of the Gods to the reign of the Empress Jit\u014d (686-97).<\/span><\/p>\n

4. The Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves<\/em> (Man’y\u014dsh\u016b<\/em>) is the first anthology of Japanese poetry, containing approximately 4,500 works in three distinct forms. The tale of how Urashima passed three years in an underwater realm only to return to his village and find everything changed and himself presently transformed into an old man is detailed in a ch\u014dka<\/em>, or “long poem,” in Book Three of the anthology.<\/span><\/p>\n

5. A fudoki<\/em>, or “gazetteer,” was a compilation of reports in the eighth century on various natural features of a given region in Japan. The Tango Gazetteer<\/em> survives only in fragmentary form.<\/span><\/p>\n

6. The Biographies of the Taoist Immortals<\/em> is a collection of marvelous tales compiled at the end of the eleventh century by \u014ce no Masafusa (1041-1111).<\/span><\/p>\n

7. \u014cgai Mori (1862-1922) was one of Japan’s greatest men of letters during the latter part of the Meiji period (1868-1912). He also pursued a career in the army medical corps, ultimately rising to the position of surgeon general.<\/span><\/p>\n

8. Sh\u014dy\u014d Tsubouchi (1859-1935) is best remembered as the first Japanese translator of Shakespeare’s plays and as an advocate of reform of the novel and drama in Japan.<\/span><\/p>\n

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Brittany Partin, a blog writer and JET program member, wrote a retelling of \u201cKobutori\u201d in 2013 that is also technically a translation. However, as she translated the tale from an oral version, it is difficult to gauge how faithfully she did so. As she sees herself as a writer, Hearn becomes a good comparison for her storytelling. Partin, like Hearn, has a very distinct storytelling style that hints at the translation not being faithfully recorded like folklorists Yanagita and Seki did for their collection of oral stories. Rather, she adapts the tale to fit her style, designating her as an author in her own right, rather than just a translator. Nevertheless, it is clear that she, like Hearn, sought to express the tale in an entertaining manner for Western audiences, resulting in her rendition completely avoiding the slightly awkward and stiff prose found in many of the other translations. She even explains what tengu<\/em> are incredibly naturally in her text, writing, \u201cOne day, while out chopping wood in the forest, he came across a trio of tengu, that is, crow-like goblins that fly, control the weather with their special fans, and have egos almost as big as their noses are long.\u201d12<\/a><\/sup>Brittany Partin, \u201c\u2018The Dancing Old Man with a Lump on His Cheek,\u2019\u201d San\u2019in Monogatari<\/em>, October 12, 2013, https:\/\/saninstory.wordpress.com\/2013\/10\/12\/the-dancing-old-man-with-a-welt-on-his-cheek\/.<\/span> Her version of the tale is thus very accessible to Western audiences while allowing her creative freedom in her prose, though is not necessarily accurate to the original Japanese version.<\/p>\n

As a whole, several noticeable patterns emerged from analyzing these translations. First, with the exception of scholarly translations, translations of \u201cKobutori\u201d started off as much more volatile, with translators altering the text as they saw fit and making sizable changes to it. Later, while there was still emphasis on adapting the tale to become more comprehensible to Western audiences, the translators also began pulling the audience closer to Japan through explanations of Japanese culture and thought. This is accompanied by less arbitrary alterations of the original text, with an added emphasis on conveying the style of the original.<\/p>\n

Overall, it becomes clear how salient the translator is in the translation process. Regardless of the original source material, the will of the translators themselves plays a substantial role in their work, with variations in religious beliefs, intended audiences, and writer autonomy vastly impacting the final translation. These decisions, such as how to translate \u201coni<\/em>\u201d or \u201csake<\/em>,\u201d while subtle, heavily influence how the reader interacts with and interprets this Japanese folktale. While none of the translators are necessarily wrong in their approach, noticing and gaining awareness of their decisions is essential to recognizing that a translated text may not accurately represent the original text in full, no matter how literal or faithful it is.<\/p>\n

Throughout these translations, there is an underlying, driving force in the form of interest in Japanese culture. While this may seem obvious, it is fascinating to contemplate that, over the span of 150 years, Japan has continued to capture the interest of the West. Today, this interest in Japan is no less strong than it was in Europe during the rise of Japonisme, and may be even more intense now with the internet\u2019s dissemination of Japanese culture. There has been a change in the telling of Japanese folktales abroad, however. While originally published in English with children in mind, this consideration has grown less salient throughout the years. Indeed, many of the compilations of Japanese folktales seen in English today do not consider a child audience at all, but an adult audience curious about Japanese culture. While English translations of Japanese folktales for children have not disappeared, translations of these folktales have evolved to take on a new role. Much like Hasegawa\u2019s Japanese fairy tale series\u2019s original purpose\u2014to help teach English\u2014Japanese folktales are now being used as a tool for Japanese language learners to enhance their studies. As these tales are written for Japanese children, they are well suited for beginning language learners to study with and absorb the culture naturally. As such, many English translations of the tale are now published alongside their original Japanese form. While modern interest in Japan and the Japanese language is largely sparked by Japanese popular culture, it is intriguing to see folktales, vestiges of traditional Japanese culture, afforded just as much interest.<\/p>\n

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I hope that, after reading this, you will consider each of Hasegawa\u2019s fairy tales in a new light. While his translators\u2019 collaboration and general interest in Japanese culture sparked their creation, and continues to motivate new translations to this day, the translated stories themselves have not remained static. They possess their own living quality to them, evolving to fit the contemporary needs of the populace. As a result, folktales continue to occupy a position of importance in our lives in spite of their ancient origins.<\/p>\n

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Works Cited<\/h6>